Predicting digital literacy: A systematic review of digital competence, usage, and transformation

Abstract

Information and communication technologies have become an integral part of daily life. However, the increasing reliance on technology in both personal and professional contexts presents significant challenges. Individuals′ levels of digital literacy affect their ability to complete everyday and work-related tasks that depend on digital tools. The present systematic review is aimed at identifying the main predictors of digital literacy and understanding how these influence its three levels: digital competence, digital use, and digital transformation. This work (INPLASY Reference 202310053) followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) methodology. A literature search covering was conducted across Web of Science, Scopus, Elsevier, PsycInfo, and PubMed using a PICO framework-based search string, from 2017 to 2022. A total of 5342 records were identified, of which 103 underwent full-text screening. A total of 44 articles was included in the review. The analysis revealed that digital competence is primarily associated with higher education, higher socioeconomic status, and older age. Digital use is mainly predicted by access to digital devices and internet connectivity. Digital transformation is often associated with health-related contexts, where individuals are expected to self-manage their health through digital applications. Despite the growing interest in digital literacy, research on its determinants remains scarce and fragmented. Significant challenges and gaps persist, including inconsistent definitions and measurement approaches, limited investigation into digital transformation, a lack of intersectional analyses, and the overrepresentation of WEIRD (western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic) populations. There is a pressing need for more systematic, inclusive, and theory-driven research to inform policymakers and practitioners aiming to foster societal development. To address these gaps, we propose an ecological model of development that reflects how interconnected systems can shape digital literacy.